Thymosin Alpha-1 Rx

The literature // Cited in full

Thymosin Alpha-1: References & Source Literature

Every study cited in this digest, with PubMed links and DOIs. Sort and check the record for yourself.

About this reference list

Every quantitative claim in this Thymosin Alpha-1 digest maps to a numbered source below. The list spans the molecule's full arc — from Goldstein's 1977 isolation and sequencing through the 2025 phase-3 TESTS sepsis trial — and includes the mechanistic, structural, oncology, and negative findings. Each entry carries a PubMed link and, where one exists, a DOI.

  1. Goldstein AL, Low TL, McAdoo M, et al. Thymosin alpha1: isolation and sequence analysis of an immunologically active thymic polypeptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1977;74(2):725-729. ↗
  2. Wu J, Zhou L, Liu J, et al. The efficacy of thymosin alpha 1 for severe sepsis (ETASS): a multicenter, single-blind, randomized and controlled trial. Crit Care. 2013;17(1):R8. ↗
  3. Wu J, Pei F, Zhou L, et al. The efficacy and safety of thymosin alpha1 for sepsis (TESTS): multicentre, double blinded, randomised, placebo controlled, phase 3 trial. BMJ. 2025;388:e082583. ↗
  4. Dominari A, Hathaway III D, Pandav K, et al. Thymosin alpha 1: A comprehensive review of the literature. World J Virol. 2020;9(5):67-78. ↗
  5. Romani L, Bistoni F, Montagnoli C, et al. Thymosin alpha1 activates dendritic cell tryptophan catabolism and establishes a regulatory environment for balance of inflammation and tolerance. Blood. 2006;108(7):2265-2274. ↗
  6. Liu Y, Pan Y, Hu Z, et al. Thymosin Alpha 1 Reduces the Mortality of Severe Coronavirus Disease 2019 by Restoration of Lymphocytopenia and Reversion of Exhausted T Cells. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(16):2150-2157. ↗
  7. Costantini C, Bellet MM, Pariano M, et al. A Reappraisal of Thymosin Alpha1 in Cancer Therapy. Front Oncol. 2019;9:873. ↗
  8. Garaci E. Thymosin alpha1: a historical overview. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007;1112:14-20. ↗
  9. Badamchian M, Goldstein AL, Sztein MB. Immune and neuroendocrine modulation with thymosins: current status of recent clinical trials in the United States. Int J Neurosci. 1990;51(3-4):365-367. ↗
  10. Billich A. Thymosin alpha1. SciClone Pharmaceuticals. Curr Opin Investig Drugs. 2002;3(5):698-707. ↗
  11. Liu B, Gong X, Chang S, Sun P, Wu J. Generation of mature Nα-terminal acetylated thymosin α 1 by cleavage of recombinant prothymosin α. ScientificWorldJournal. 2013;2013:387282. ↗
  12. Hoch K, Volk DE. Structures of Thymosin Proteins. Vitam Horm. 2016;102:1-24. ↗
  13. Binsfeld M, Hannon M, Otjacques E, et al. Impact of the immunomodulating peptide thymosin alpha 1 on multiple myeloma and immune recovery after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Cancer Immunol Immunother. 2015;64(8):989-998. ↗
  14. Garaci E, Pica F, Matteucci C, et al. Historical review on thymosin α1 in oncology: preclinical and clinical experiences. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2015;15 Suppl 1:S31-S39. ↗
  15. Mandaliti W, Nepravishta R, Sinibaldi Vallebona P, Pica F, Garaci E, Paci M. Thymosin α1 Interacts with Exposed Phosphatidylserine in Membrane Models and in Cells and Uses Serum Albumin as a Carrier. Biochemistry. 2016;55(10):1462-1472. ↗
  16. Pica F, Chimenti MS, Gaziano R, et al. Serum thymosin alpha1 levels in patients with chronic inflammatory autoimmune diseases. Clin Exp Immunol. 2016;186(1):39-45. ↗
  17. Dinetz E, Lee E. Comprehensive Review of the Safety and Efficacy of Thymosin Alpha 1 in Human Clinical Trials. Altern Ther Health Med. 2024;30(2):8-15. ↗